Assignment 4 : Major Schools of Indian Aestheticism : 22402 Paper 109 : Literary Theories & Criticism & Indian Aesthetics

Introduction : When it comes to Indian Aestheticism, we should not forget the literary giants of ancient India who has introduced various schools of Literary Criticism and Aestheticism and enriched the field of Literature of the age and onwards. There have been innumerable great sages who were juggernauts in propounding keenly observed literary theories such as Rasa Theory, Dhvani Theory, Riti Theory, Vakrokti Theory, Alamkaras, Auchitya Theory, etc. Here in this assignment I would talk about all the five literary schools mentioned above with reference to the respectively pertaining literary works. There are more than the prominent six figures in the ancient Indian criticism who helped to establish the modern day technique of Cinematography. These six figures are :

(1) Bharatmuni : 'Natyashastra' (2nd Century BC) 》Rasa Theory

(2) Kavi Bhamaha : 'Kavyalamkara' (6th Century AD) 》Alamkaras

(3) Aacharya Vamana : 'Kavyalamkarasutra' (9th Century AD) 》Riti Theory

(4) Anandavardhana : 'Dhvanyaloka' (9th Century AD) 》Dhvani Theory & Sphotavaad

(5) Aacharya Kuntaka : 'Vakroktijivita' (11th Century AD) 》Vakrokti Theory

(6) Kshemendra : 'Auchityavicharacharcha' (Eleventh Century AD) 》Auchitya Theory

Here are brief descriptions of aforementioned aestheticians and the respective theories they have propounded enriching the world of Literary Criticism & Aesthetics.

1) Bharatmuni & Rasa Theory : 

Bharatmuni : Bharatmuni is a prominent figure in the Indian Dramaturgy and an epitome of Sanskrit Theatre. He was an ancient sage. His most celebrated work 'Natyashstra' deals with several techniques of making any dramatic performance best and taking it to its most possible performative peak. 

Rasa Theory : In the 6th Chapter of his 'Natyashastra,' Bharatmuni puts forth the theory of Rasa (Rhetorical Sentiments) which are eight in total as per Bharatmuni's theory and the ninth Rasa which is 'Shanti Rasa' (Peace) was later added by 9th century King of Kashmeer & Grammarian Maharaja Abhinavgupta. 

Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe notes in his 'Approaches to Acting: Past and Present' : 

"Rasa is produced from a combination of Determinants (vibhava), Consequents (anubhava) and Transitory States (vyabhicaribhava)." 

— Natyashastra 6.109 (~200 BCE–200 CE), Translator: Daniel Meyer-Dinkgräfe 

Here is the Grid of Nine Rasas (Rhetorical Sentiments) :

Definition of Rasa Given by Bharatmuni :

"तत्र विभावानुभावव्यभिचारीसंयोगाद्रस्निष्पत्ती।"

(Meaning : Rasa is generated by the convergence of Vibhava (Determinants or Causes,) Anubhava (Consequents,) and Vyabhichari or Sanchari Bhava (Transitory States of Emotions.))

Vibhavas (Determinants) : Vibhavas are the main causes by which Rasas are generated in spectators or sahṛdaya (one who has heart to feel the Rasa.)

There are two kinds of Vibhavas :

Alambana Vibhava (Basic Stimulus) : An object or a person in whom respect of the emotions are generated.

For example, Shakuntala, Dushyanta, etc.

Uddipana Vibhava (Outside Stimulus or Catalyst) : The situation in the environment which helps in intensifying the generation of emotions.

For example, chirping of birds, rivers, Spring Season, flower fragrance, etc.

Anubhavas (Consequents) : The outward indications brought forth as the results of Vibhavas are know as Anubhavas :

These are divisible into two kinds :

(1) Vachika (Verbal) : The song, poem, speech, dialogues spoken with voice modulation, speech intonation, and eloquence bringing the emotional gusts in the psyche of spectators.

(2) Angika (Physical) : The modulation of several Angas (Limbs) and Upangas (Subsidiary Limbs) by the performers which adds to in generation of Rasa in the audience.

Vyabhichari (Transitory Emotions) : The emotions which do not last for a long period but is transitory in nature and are generated in the heart of beholders by the movement of eyes, hands, breasts, hips, etc. of the performers.

There are Thirty-Three Vyabhichari Bhavas :

(1) Nirveda (Disinterest)

(2) Glani (Tiredness)

(3) Shanka (Apprehension)

(4) Asuya (Insecurity)

(5) Mada (Intoxication)

(6) Shrama (Exhaustion)

(7) Alasya (Lethargy)

(8) Dainya (Pity)

(9) Chinta (Anxiety)

(10) Moha (Delusion)

(11) Smriti (Recollection)

(12) Dhriti (Steadfastness)

(13) Vrida (Shame)

(14) Chapalata (Impulsiveness)

(15) Harsha (Sudden Delight)

(16) Aavega (Excitement)

(17) Jadata (Stupor)

(18) Garva (Arrogance)

(19) Visada (Depression)

(20) Autsuka (Longing)

(21) Nidra (Sleep)

(22) Apasmara (Epilepsy)

(23) Supta (Dreaming)

(24) Vibodha (Awakwning)

(25) Amarsha (Restrained Anger)

(26) Avahittha (Deception)

(27) Ugrata (Ferociousness)

(28) Mati (Analysis)

(29) Vyadhi (Sickness)

(30) Unmad (Temporary Insanity)

(31) Marana (Death)

(32) Trasa (Panic)

(33) Vitarka (Argumentativeness)

2) Kavi Bhamaha & Alamkara :

Kavi Bhamaha : Bhamaha (7th Century BC) was a Sanskrit Poetician from Kashmeer who is believed to be contemporaneous to Kavi Dandin. He is famously know for his Figurative Indices Treatise named 'Kavyalamkara' (The Ornaments of Poetry.) The Figures of Speech has been his area of expertise upon which he expounds the variety of theories and several kinds of Figures of Speech in Sanskrit Poetry.

Alamkara Theory : The extensive treatise on Figures of Speech in Indian Poetics is 'Kavyalamkara' attributed to Bhamaha.

Bhamaha divides Alamkaras into two types :

(1) Shabdalamkara : When the word used in sentence gives pleasure and wit to the reader or audience.

For example, Anuprasa, Yamak, Shlesha, Punarokti, Vipsa, Vakrokti, etc.

(2) Arthalankara : When the meaning is derived out of sentence or a piece of literature giving pleasure to the reader.

For example, Upama, Rupak, Manavikaran, Utpreksha, Atishayokti, Upameyopama, etc.

3) Aacharya Vamana & Riti Theory :

Aacharya Vamana : Aacharya Vamana was an Indian rhetorician from latter half of the 8th century to the early 9th century. His theory of poetics is know as Riti Vichar (Style Literary Writings.)

Riti Theory : Riti (Style of Writing) is what Vamana's theory focuses upon. In Vamana's view, Riti is :

"रीतिरोआत्मकाव्यस्य शरीरस्येव।"

So, he states that as Atman (Soul or Living Force) is to Body, so is Riti to Poetry. Riti differentiates amongst individual authors who write in their own outstanding styles.

4) Aanandavardhana & Dhvani Theory :

Aanandavardhana : Aanandavardhana (c. 9th Century) was a Kashmeeri grammarian who is best known for his Dhvani Theory which he propounded in his famous treatise 'Dhvanyaloka.' Along with the introduction of Dhvani Theory, he supports the theory of Sphota (Blast) in the same treatise which is known as 'Sphotavaada' which was first introduced by Bharathari.

Dhvani Theory : 'Dhvani' is 'Meaning' communicated in written work of art. No poetry is possible without presence of Dhvani.

There are three types of Dhvani :

(1) Abhidha (Denotation) : When words are meant plainly what they are written to be meant for.

For example, "I am going to school for studies."

(2) Lakshana (Indication) : When the absence of direct meaning is observed in the words, and they indicate to something which is not written but is meant to be understood by reading between the lines.

For example, "Ramble o sage freely in the forest, lion has come amidst of it."

(3) Vyanjana (Suggestion) : When both - literal and suggestive - meanings are available in words. Another term which is used to denote Vyanjana Dhvani is 'Pratiyamaanaartha.'

For example, "Fair is foul and foul is fair, let us hover through the for and filthy air."

Sphotavaada : When the word is uttered and the the picture that 'blasts' in listener's mind is called sphotavaada, for which Aanandavardhana uses the term 'Antimbuddhigrahya' :

Last sentence in a structure,

Last word in a sentence,

Last letter in a word.

Grammatical Definitions of Dhvani :

(1) ध्वनति इति ध्वनि: - That which suggest both word and meaning is Dhvani

(2) ध्वन्यते इति ध्वनि - That which is suggested is Dhvani

(3) ध्वननं ध्वनि: - Process of Suggestion is Dhvani

(4) ध्वनि समुदाय: ध्वनि: - Entire Literature is Dhvani

Three Varieties of Dhvani :

(1) Vastu Dhvani : When suggested meaning describes things, ideas, informations through words and no figure of speech is used.

For example, "What's in a name? That which we call a rose/ By any other name would smell as sweet."

(2) Alamkara Dhvani : When suggested meaning is transmuted through the use of Figures of Speech in literary works.

For example, "Who will not rise in rage seeing his beloved's lip wounded? You heeded not my warning and kissed the lotus hiding a bee. Now rightly pay the penalty." (Dr P. V. Guranani's Presentation)

(3) Rasa Dhvani : Aanandavardhana believes that Rasa must reside within the poet only then his/her poetry will have the Rasatmaka Abhivyakti (Rhetoric Sentimental Expression) and the Bhavakas (Spectators) too must have the Rasa within themselves to experience the essence of poetry.

For example, "Turning and turning in the widening gyre

The falcon cannot hear the falconer;

Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold;

Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world,

The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere the ceremony of innocence is drowned;

The best lack all conviction, while the worst are full of passionate intensity."

5) Aacharya Kuntaka & Vakrokti Theory :

Aacharya Kuntaka : Rajanaka Kuntaka was a Sanskrit literary theorist and Poetician who postulates the theory or Siddhanta of Vakrokti (Oblique Expression) in his famous literary treatise 'Vakroktijivita.'

Vakrokti Theory : Aacharya Kuntaka promotes the significance of Vakrokti in the formation of any type of literary composition, especially in poetry :

"शब्दार्थौ सहितौ वक्रकविव्यापारशालिनि ।

बन्धे व्यवस्थितौ काव्यं तद्विदाह्लादकारिणि ।।"

(Meaning : A poetry which possesses the Vakrokti in Shabda (Words) and Artha (Meaning) which is the outcome of poet's toil for choosing appropriate language and thus creates the perfectly formed poetry, becomes delightful only for those who have ability to perceive Vakrokti in the work of art or poetry.)

For him, Vakrokti is :

'वक्रोक्तिरेव वैदग्ध्यभङ्गीभणितिरुच्यते'

(Meaning : Something that is told with artistic crookedness, only that can be beautiful and having aesthetic pleasure within.)

There are six kinds of Vakrokti :

(1) Varnavinyasa Vakrata (Phonetic Figurativeness) : Oblique arrangement of consonants and syllables.

For example, "Fair is foul and foul is fair"

(2) Pada-Purvardha Vakrata (Lexical Figurativeness) : Peculiar use of synonyms, use of words, conventional words, attributive words, choice in vocabulary, metaphor, power of adjectives, and veiled expressions.

For example, 'Vaikunthapati' instead of 'Krishna' and 'Swargavasa' instead of 'Death.'

(3) Pada-Parardha or Pratyaya Vakrata (Grammatical Figurativeness) : Skillful use of suffixes, especially those indicating numbers, person, and case forms.

For example, 'Beautiful' as Adjective 》'Beautify' as Verb.

(4) Vakya Vakrata (Sentential Figurativeness) : Depends on poet's imagination and ability to describe things. All Arthalamkaras come under this.

For example, Sita sends a message to Rama in 'Raghuvansham' how Lakshmi is jealous of her and not allowing ber to live with him,...so I had been sheltered by you in this house is not tolerated by Lakshmi.

(5) Prakarana Vakrata (Contextual Figurativeness) : All those factors which contributes to the strikingness of the context. To add new events into the original story.

For example, Rishi Durvasa's course in 'Abhigyanashakuntalam' is Kaalidasa's own improvisation in the play.

(6) Prabandha Vakrata (Compositional Figurativeness) : Adaptation of a story from well-known source with new twists added to it, with a new emotional significance, deletion of unnecessary episodes, the development of even minor incidents into events of far-reaching consequences. Main Rasa can be made subsidiary Rasa and subsidiary Rasa can become main Rasa.

For example, the end of 'Urubhang' depicts Duryodhana's sad state and displays him as an axial character. Instead of giving title as 'Daridra Charudatta,' Shudraka gives title as 'Mricchhakatikam.'

6) Kshemendra & Auchitya Theory :

Kshemendra : Kshemendra was an Eleventh-Century poet, satirist, philosopher, dramatist, and art-critic from Kashmeer, India. He is famously known for his theory of Auchitya (Appropriateness) which he puts forth in his famous book 'Auchityavicharacharcha.'

Auchitya Theory : Kshemendra defines what 'Auchitya' is in his treatise 'Auchityavicharacharcha' :

"उचितं प्राहुराचार्याः सदृशं किल यस्य यत्।

उचितस्य च यो भावस्तौचित्यं प्रचक्षते।।"

(Meaning : We call the thing appropriate for what it is made to fit in, and the Bhava of 'Appropriateness' is called Auchitya, that is the beauty of Auchitya.)

So any work of art which has proper size of composition and clings to its main subject throughout the text, falls into the category of 'Uchita Sahitya' (Appropriate Literary Writing.) This is what Kshemedra calls as :

"औचित्यं रस-सिद्धस्य स्थिरं काव्यस्य जीवितम्।"

Conclusion : It is the thing of wonder to see that the ancient theories till the date is conformed to by wide modern literary writings wherein they fit perfectly into what had been dealt with earlier, it is curious to know about the universal factor functioning in alliance with the creator of literary texts and the composer of the bodies of criticism in various literary regions discussed briefly here. The exquisite richness of Indian Aestheticism & Literary Criticism is signified by the staunch pillars like ancient aestheticians and literary critics who contributed their lives in form of cornerstone theories which til the day are helpful to all the art-enthusiasts.

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